Despite the fact that the most popular are various types of buildings designed by architects of past years, there are quite a few monuments over modern architecture... They are less popular with most tourists than antiques, however, they certainly deserve attention. There is a special city on Earth, which is a real work of art by modern architects.

Monument city

Not everyone is able to immediately name the capital city called a monument of modern architecture, since to answer such a question, you will need a fairly deep knowledge of geography. In fact, the answer is to be found in the city of Brasilia, which became the capital of this state in 1960.

IMPORTANT! This settlement is relatively young and its age is about sixty years, which did not prevent it from becoming the capital of the region.

Such an unusual monument owes its appearance to the election promises of the local president, who promised voters a completely new city, provided with all the necessary infrastructure, which can accommodate a sufficient number of residents in order to be called the capital of the country.

Despite the fact that the president had only a few years to fulfill his promise, he used a real army of builders, which in a short time was able to build a beautiful and modern city.

Brasilia in modern times

For a tourist, this city is an extremely interesting and valuable find, since in addition to its memorable appearance and indescribable atmosphere, Brasilia boasts an impressive list of attractions.

ADVICE! When visiting Brasilia, it is extremely important to take time to walk the city streets without excursions, as this will allow you to fully appreciate the talents of the architects who design the city.

• Maternidad - a park with a restaurant and bar, characterized by a pleasant atmosphere and low cost of food;
• Museum of Money - is a rather curious collection of not only local, but also foreign currency of past years;
• Chapel of Don Bosco - one of the most revered saints by the locals.

The unique combination of unusual and modern architecture, as well as a rich cultural program, makes Brasilia an ideal tourist destination.

Someone may find it an outstanding success to successfully design a place for a barbecue in their own backyard. But the true triumph can be called the creation of skyscrapers and amazing buildings, architectural masterpieces, about which rumor does not stop. To honor the geniuses of architecture, we have compiled a list of the 10 most architecturally beautiful capitals in the world. We will talk about both the ancient capitals, in which the architectural monuments of ancient centuries have been preserved, as well as about modern megacities, surprising with their futuristic buildings, as well as about cities where you can see an amazing mix of styles. We will tell you about the capitals in which we managed to maintain a balance between classic and modern.

Would you like to surprise your friends with a vacation story and numerous photos of the places you have been? When planning a vacation, remember our story and, perhaps, you will want to visit these particular cities and learn a lot of new things.

# 10 - Brasilia, Brazil

This city originated in the red desert and reached perfection in less than 4 years. He became the capital of the country, a living and breathing organism. This is Brasilia, the 10th item on our list. Conceived and planned by the architect Lucio Costa in 1957, this city is home to many buildings designed by the world famous architect Oscar Niemeyer. From a bird's eye view, it looks like a cross, but to many it resembles a butterfly or an airplane in shape. This layout was criticized by many, but UNESCO declared the city a World Heritage Site.

The main architectural masterpieces of this capital are considered to be the Aurora Palace (the official residence of the President of the Republic is located here), the Republican Cultural Complex, the Cathedral, the Square of the Three Powers (all buildings on it are governmental). In the design of the city, the ideas of Le Corbusier, a French architect, who is rightfully considered the father of modern architecture, were of no small importance. Brasilia is an amazing capital, if only because it was erected in the shortest possible time.

# 9 - Dubai, UAE

Are you faced with the question of where to get a crane for a construction project? Blame Dubai for this. It is estimated that about 25% of all cranes in the world are involved in the construction of this Arab city, and they work around the clock. Crammed with skyscrapers, Dubai is considered the only capital to have a seven-star hotel, the Burj Al Arab, the tallest hotel in the world. This amazing structure is shaped like a sail.

But it also pales in comparison with other buildings that loom on the horizon. These are Hydropolis, the world's first underwater hotel, Burj Dubai, the tallest structure in the world, API World Tower, which will become the tallest hotel in the world in the future, Dubailand, a Disneyland-style amusement park that is expected to surpass Walt's creation. Disney in scope and beauty. Do you want to look into the future with one eye? Look here.

# 8 - Athens, Greece

Acropolis, the heart of ancient Greek civilization. It is here that the architects of the 21st century draw their inspiration. Perhaps the Acropolis gives the entire city an amazing solidity and power. Here you will see the classic Greco-Roman columns that once supported the Parthenon, the most significant of the ancient monuments of Athens, you will see intricate patterns and intricate carvings on their tops. Some people will want to stay here, but if you are longing for something new, turn your gaze to the building of the Athens Academy - it embodied a modern vision of the classical Greco-Roman style. There is also the recently renovated Athens Olympic Stadium. But is there any doubt that it is the ancient architecture, which has been tested for centuries, that attracts numerous tourists here. That is why we have included Athens in the list of the most architecturally interesting capitals.

# 7 - Florence, Italy

The city is considered by many to be the cradle and center of the Italian Renaissance. And, of course, the architecture of most of the buildings in Florence reflects the style of the Renaissance. This is the world famous Palazzo Vecchio (Old Palace), where the city hall is located, the Academy of Arts - it is here that you can see David, the greatest creation of Michelangelo, the Uffizi Gallery - one of the oldest museums in the world, the main museum of Florence, the exposition of which consists of masterpieces of the Renaissance. These are also majestic and airy cathedrals, among which Santa Maria del Fiore is the largest cathedral in Europe, as well as the Basilica of the Holy Cross, a rather large church. A unique attraction in Florence is the Ponte Vecchio - Old Bridge - a medieval building with small shops and workshops on both sides.

# 6 - Rome, Italy

Like Athens, Rome is the cradle of Western civilization, and this is primarily evidenced by its richest architecture. These are true classics: Colosseum, Pantheon, Roman Forum, Temple of Venus in Rome. Later buildings can compete with them in beauty - St. Peter's Square in the Vatican, the Sistine Chapel, the National Monument to Victor Emmanuel II. There are not so many modern buildings here, the fabulous abundance of the ancients, erected in the style of classicism and the Renaissance, is enough. It is thanks to the magnificent architecture that Rome was included by us in the list of the most beautiful capitals.

# 5 - Shanghai, China

China is actively developing its industry today, and Shanghai, one of the main projects, is an absolute evidence of its rapid growth. At the current scale, decisions on the construction of certain buildings are made in a matter of hours, and it takes no more than a week to develop a project (in the West, this will take months and years). The new Pudong district, the international business center of Shanghai, is rapidly developing: here are the most beautiful and tallest buildings, including the Jin Mao Tower and the Pearl of the East TV Tower, which house shopping center, hotel and observation deck.

Traveling along the river, you can see the past of the city - there are many buildings built in the colonial style, but they are gradually being replaced by modern structures like the Shanghai Grand Theater. Nearby is the construction of what in the near future may become the tallest structure in the world - the building of the World Financial Center. Still not sure where China is heading? Then look.

# 4 - Berlin, Germany

Since 1989, ever since the Wall collapsed, Berlin has been actively involved in the restoration and transformation of its buildings. The most notable and famous are, of course, the Reichstag, which once housed the Nazi parliament. Today it is covered by a new glass dome; the Potsdamer Platz area - previously abandoned, but now renovated, is dominated by the impressive Sony Center and the headquarters of the DaimlerChrysler concern, built over the past five years. Among the newest can be called the building of the new British Embassy, ​​the Jewish Museum, designed by the American architect Daniel Libeskind.

There are also many examples of classical architecture and buildings in the neoclassical style - the Old Museum, the preserved building of the Bode Museum, and the Red City Hall (the old residence of the mayor).

# 3 - Chicago, Illinois

This is not just a city of delicious hot dogs and hot sports fans, here, in the City of Winds, the Chicago school of architecture was born and developed - the source of modern American architecture. After the devastating fire of 1871, which destroyed more than 2,000 acres of various buildings, Chicago was rebuilt. Thanks to the efforts of architects, present-day Chicago arose; there are many memorial structures that the whole world knows about. To understand what this city is like today, it is worth remembering that the very word "skyscraper" first appeared here.

The main attractions of the city are called: Sears Building - the tallest tower in the USA, Wrigley Building - triangular office building, the headquarters of a chewing gum company, and Marina City, aptly called the "corncob," a photograph of it gracing the cover of the Wilco rock band Yankee Hotel Foxtrot. Moreover, the greatest architect of America, Frank Lloyd Wright, lived and worked here, a lot of houses built according to his designs have survived in the city, another, no less famous architect, Frank Gehry, developed the city center and presented him with a huge Millennium Park.

# 2 - Paris, France

Walking around this city, you catch yourself thinking that you are in the halls of a huge art museum. Here you can find the architecture of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, neoclassicism and art nouveau, it is full of ultra-modern buildings that fit perfectly into the overall picture of the city and remind that this is not a museum after all. Indeed, ex-French President Mitterrand was so imbued with the idea of ​​renewing the city that he authorized the implementation of an architectural project called "Grands Travaux" (it was started in the 80s and its goal was to renew the classic style of the city). As a result, a glass pyramid appeared at the entrance to the Louvre, as well as a number of interesting new architectural structures.

The Pritzker Architecture Prize of 2008 (equated in the circle of architects to the Nobel Prize) went to the Parisian architect Jean Nouvel, whose works include museums, in particular, the Musee du quai Branly, conference rooms, office buildings and residential buildings. If you are a passionate lover of the classics, then in Paris you can appreciate it: the Arc de Triomphe, Notre Dame Cathedral, the Musée d'Orsay ... To see everything, you will need to come back here again.

# 1 - Barcelona, ​​Spain

Can your camera capture happiness? If so, it is worth buying a new memory card and coming to Barcelona. The greatest architects of the world, gone and living now, created this city and gave it a regal look. Start with the Hospital of St. Paul and the Palace of Catalan Music, the creations of Luis Domenech and Montaner. These buildings are UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Sites.

You can admire the art of another famous Catalan architect - Antoni Gaudi. Among his masterpieces are Casa Mila, Park Guel and the Sagrada Familia - Sagrada Familia. Further you can see the work of Santiago Calatrava - his tower Montjuic Communications, as well as the masterpiece of the already mentioned Frank Gehry "Fish", which is located in Port Olympic, the city's water gate. Finally, walk along La Rambla, the market street in the Gothic Quarter, and marvel at the abundance of ancient buildings. It is not for nothing that Barcelona, ​​the focus of classical and modern architecture, crowns our rating of the most beautiful capitals in the world.

While people involved in construction and design celebrate their professional holiday - World Architecture Day, we will present the most interesting and unusual works of modern architects and their predecessors.

Habitat-67 neighborhoods, Montreal

The unique residential complex was built in 1967 for the Expo exhibition. 354 houses connected to each other are not arranged in random order, but so that all apartments receive maximum sunlight. The style of this object - brutalism, by the way, became popular in the USSR as well.

Friedensreich Hundertwasser's Projects

It is very difficult to choose any one work of this iconic architect, because they are all amazing in their own way. His "fabulous" style does not fit into any of the classic concepts - the great Austrian designed "good" and even "kind" houses. Here, for example, is an ordinary residential, which everyone simply calls the Hundertwasser House. It is not surprising that the author of such an architecture always wore different socks on principle.

Ideal palace, France

The unremarkable town of Autriv became famous as a local postman at the beginning of the 20th century. For 33 years, Ferdinand Cheval built his own palace from scrap materials - stones that he collected during work. Ferdinand absolutely did not understand the canons of architecture and used all the styles that he could see. Therefore, in the "Ideal Palace", as the author himself called it, there are elements from the Ancient to Gaudí.

Lotus Temple, India

In 1986, one of the most unusual in the world was built in New Delhi. The giant marble lotus leaves seem to be about to blossom. Almost natural conditions were even created for the flower - the temple, like a real lotus, rises out of the water. Although it is a religious structure, there are no icons, no frescoes or paintings inside: these attributes are not important in Bahá'í teachings.

Cologne Cathedral, Germany

A canonical example of Gothic, known far beyond the "architectural circles". Of course, we will not describe the numerous details of the huge building. Let's restrict ourselves to one fact: in 1880, when the next stage of construction was completed, the cathedral became the tallest building on the planet for four years - 157 meters. But even today, surrounded by low-rise buildings in the center of Cologne, the cathedral still looks impressive.

Burj Khalifa, UAE

In recent decades, the title of the tallest building in the world has literally been a rolling banner: now Taipei, now Kuala Lumpur. Of course, the emirates could not pass by such a competition and decided to set their own record. Along the way, "" won more than ten nominations, for example, as the owner of the fastest elevator and the highest located nightclub (on the 144th floor).)

Temple of the Dancing God, India

The famous Indian temple of Brihadeshwara, which recently celebrated its millennium, is dedicated to Shiva. In total, there are 250 statues of this god inside the temple, and they all depict different poses of a magic dance. Previously, the temple was also a fortress, therefore, in addition to graceful statues, there are also serious defensive structures. Moats and walls guard the legendary riches that pilgrims carried to Shiva for centuries.

Bird's Nest Stadium, Beijing

The Olympic Games for architects is a great chance to make their dreams come true: the authorities do not skimp on bold and expensive projects. From the 2008 Olympics, the stadium for 80,000 people got a completely unusual shape. Although it is not even the shape that is remarkable, but the execution of giant iron beams - the airy translucent structure can withstand an eight-point earthquake.

Chrysler Building, New York

One of the best examples of Art Deco and the tallest skyscraper in the middle of the 20th century was built by order of the Chrysler automobile company. It became the highest thanks to the irreconcilable rivalry between the two architects: the author of this building at the last moment before the completion of construction agreed on the installation of a 40-meter spire, thereby overtaking the new Trump Building. And the unusual arcs on the facades of the upper floors imitate car rims.

Capsule house, Japan

The combination of Japanese minimalism and love for new technologies has given the world a unique project - a capsule residential building. All modules (apartments and offices) in this building are completely replaceable and are attached to the metal base with just four screws. Despite the visual fragility of such a system, there have not been any accidents since it was built in 1974.

Ring houses, China

Unusual round fortress houses appeared in a long time ago, and they stopped building only in the 1960s. Prior to this, dwellings were built on the principle of a closed system in many areas. Lack of land and the ability to defend themselves together pushed people to settle in communes in several of these houses. And the microclimate inside protected from heat and cold.

Southernmost Orthodox Church

This building differs not in design or size, but exclusively in the place where it is located. Not far from the Russian Antarctic station Bellingshausen in 2004, the wooden church of the Holy Trinity was consecrated. And the logs for the church have come probably the longest way in the history of logistics of building materials: Altai-Gorny-Kaliningrad-Antarctica.

Top Secret Office Building, USA

The world's most inaccessible office building is also the largest. This is the famous Pentagon - the building of the Ministry of Defense. The huge pentagonal building has 28 km of corridors, and the area of ​​all five floors is 604,000 square meters. This giant was built in the 1940s, so a small incident came out: there are twice as many toilets in the building as needed - separately for blacks, separately for whites. True, by the end of construction, the old orders were canceled and they did not even have time to hang up the signs.

Pool in the sky, Singapore

Marina Bay Sands' three towers support a truly unique architectural structure - a huge platform shaped like a ship. On the "deck" is a living garden and a giant swimming pool. By the way, the entire design of the hotel is officially approved by feng shui experts.

City on a cliff, Sri Lanka

The real city-fortress was erected by ancient architects on the steep 300-meter cliff of Sigiriya. King Kasap I ordered to build his residence at such a height for protection, but did not forget about comfort. Covered terraces, seating benches, trees and even an artificial reservoir made Sigiriya a luxury haven. In addition to official historical monuments, the tradition, so beloved by our compatriots, is also interesting: starting from the 7th century, the guests of the palace left inscriptions on the rocks like "Vasya was here, 879", only in verse.

The most interesting and important monuments of ancient American culture are located on the plateaus of Central America, in Old Mexico and Yucatan, they testify to the high culture of the peoples who inhabited this territory: the Toltecs, Aztecs, Mayans and Incas.

These are works of building art and sculpture, standing here partly alone, close to residential places, partly found in whole masses in the form of ruins of large cities (commonly called casas piedras).

Although in general they have the same character and represent a picture of the same art based on the simplest principles, it is impossible, at least, not to distinguish between two different degrees of development between them. Monuments in Oaxaca, Guatemala and Yucatan belong to one of them, more perfect and, in any case, earlier; between them by nationalities and centuries is impossible.

The ruins found in Mexico are mostly the remains of either temples or fortifications. Their construction is notable for its massiveness, but at the same time noble taste and bears the stamp of art, which has already achieved a certain development. Some of the temples were erected on the upper platforms of huge stepped pyramids, lined with stone blocks outside, and filled with stones and earth inside.

The walls, columns and pylons are very massive, usually the so-called false vaults. The surface of the walls is decorated with horizontal belts with relief geometric patterns. The overall composition is complemented by sculptural elements, specific ornaments not found anywhere else, and hieroglyphs.

The main building material, especially in the construction of significant structures, was stone; tools - stone hammers. With their help, mighty fortresses, roads, water conduits were created; with obsidian knives, they cut off the stems, from the fibers of which the ropes for suspension bridges were woven.

Aztec architecture - Teotihuacan

On the territory of the Mexican plateau (average altitude of 2300 m above sea level), different cultures came to replace each other until it became the center of the Aztec kingdom.

Significant monuments of that time include the buildings in Teotihuacan, an important religious center, where many palaces, stepped temples were concentrated and grand pyramids Sun and Moon. The art of that period is notable for its rigor and simplicity, although the structures and their sculptural design are of superhuman proportions.

In the X century. Teotihuacan was occupied by the Toltecs. Their capital was Tula. Numerous monuments of that time have been preserved here. Toltec art is characterized by outstanding ornamental stone compositions. The ruins of entire cities are found in Tula (Tollan), the ancient city of the Toltecs, at Papantla and Mapilque in Veracruz, at Palenque in the province of Chiapas and at Okozingo in the province of the same name.

In the XIV century. the Aztecs appeared in Mexico and founded the capital of their state, Tenochtitlan, here. Aztec architecture, with the exception of ornamental motifs, develops the Toltec tradition - and they built pyramids with decorative friezes.

The Mayan state occupied the territory of present-day Honduras, the Guatemalan Plateau and the Yucatan Peninsula (now Mexico).

At an altitude of about 3000 m, on a plateau located at the eastern border of the Rio Usumacinta basin, in the foothills of the Sierra Oriental de Chiapas, are the mysterious ancient ruins of Palenque. At present, a state reserve has been opened here. Often shrouded in fog and surrounded by dense forests, the mysterious ruins are resounded only by the cries of howler monkeys. The ancient city makes one of the most powerful impressions for travelers among the monuments of the South American continent. Forest thickets served as a good protection for this mystical place. At one time, the Spanish conquistador Cortez passed next to Palenque and did not notice him behind the lush vegetation that completely hid the city.

The first settlers appeared here in 100 BC. BC, but the peak of the city's heyday fell on the period from 600 to 800 AD. e. The complex consists of two main parts: the official one and the settlements surrounded by fields where various agricultural crops were grown.

In the official part of the city, there are many buildings that were of great importance in the social and religious life of the Maya Indians: the Pyramid (or temple) of the Inscriptions, the palace, the Temple of the Sun, the Temple of the Earl, the Temple of Skulls, the Temple of the Cross, the Temple of the Prosperous Cross, a ball game field. All these buildings were erected under the personal patronage of the rulers of Palenque, the most prominent of whom was Pacal, who ascended the throne in 615 AD. e. at the age of 12 and died in 683

Pacal is buried in a stone sarcophagus under a pyramid, often called the Temple of the Inscriptions. The body of the ruler was richly decorated with jade ornaments, and a jade mask was also put on his face. The sarcophagus is closed with an elaborately carved slab. The Temple of the Inscriptions, perhaps the most famous of all the structures in Palenque, was first thoroughly studied in 1952. Its height reaches 23 m - this is the tallest building of the entire complex; it has a complex eight-level structure. 69 steep steps lead to the top.

Throughout its history, Palenque was ruled by 12 monarchs, each of whom simultaneously served as a secular ruler, high priest and commander-in-chief. Pacal and his children left the most striking mark in history: it was during their reign that the bulk of the world-famous mysterious buildings were created. After the death of Pakal, his son Chan-Balum (the name translates as "Snake-Jaguar") ascended the throne and ruled for 18 years. In addition to the creation of the Pyramid of Inscriptions, the period of his reign was marked by the construction of the Temple of the Cross, the Temple of the Cross of Prosperity and the Temple of the Sun.

The culture until the Mayan period reaches its heyday (classical period) in the 7th and 8th centuries, when outstanding architectural and sculptural monuments, memorial steles, colonnades, altars, temples and palaces were created. Several cities, significant in their planning and architecture, were founded, for example, Chichen Itza with several dozen pyramids and temples - the Warriors, the Feathered Serpent or the Jaguar.

Mayan architecture - pyramids at Chichen Itza

The Mayan builders became extremely quickly convinced that wooden floor beams are destroyed by termites in a matter of years and completely switched to the construction of "complex" vaults from large stone blocks - because of this, the internal spaces of buildings are even narrower than in Mesopotamia.

Palenque

Culture on the territory of present-day Peru has gone through several stages of development. From the first period (from 1200 to 200 BC) only a few temples have survived.

A significant monument of the third period (from 900 to 1000 AD) is the large truncated pyramid, called the "solar pyramid" at Moche, on the northern coast. For its construction, it took about 130 million pieces of raw bricks.

In the period from 1000 to 1300 in the south of Peru, the city of Tiahuanaco flourishes near Lake Titicaca, located at an altitude of 4000 m above sea level. Here, structures have been erected from huge blocks of basalt and sandstone with interesting monolithic gates, decorated with rich relief decor. The "decor" on the Tiwanaku's monolithic gates, according to most scholars, is a gigantic calendar.

The large temple in Mexico, which stood in the middle of the city, was so large that, according to Cortés, it could hold 500 horses. It was a pyramid of five floors, 38 m in height, had a base of 95 m and was decorated with two towers.

MAYA CITIES IN LATIN AMERICA
Belize	Altun-Ha | Caracol | Cajal Pech | Quayo | Lamanai | Lubaantung | Nim-Li-Punit | Shunantunich
Guatemala	Aguateca | Gumarkakh | Dos Pilas | Ishimche | Ishkun | Yashha | Caminalhuyu | Cancúen | Quirigua | La Corona | Machakila | Misko Viejo | Naachtun | Nakbe | Naranjo | Piedras Negras | Sakuleu | San Bartolo | Seibal | Sival | Tayasal | Takalik-Abakh | Tikal | Toposhte | Huashaktun | El Baul | El Mirador | El Peru
Honduras	Copan | El Puente
Mexico	Akanmul | Akanseh | Balamku | Bekan | Bonampak | Ichpich | Yaxchilan | Kabah | Kakashtla | Calakmul | Koba| Komalkalko | Kohunlich | Labna | Mayapan | Mani | Nokučić | Oshkintok | Palenque | Rio Beck | Sayil | Sakpeten | Santa Rosa Shtampak | Tanks | Tonina | Tulum | Uxmal | Haina | Tsibilchaltun | Chacmultun | Chakchoben | Chicanna | Chinkultik | Chichen Itza | Chunchukmil | Shkipche | Shpuhil | Ek-Balam | Etzna
Salvador	San Andres | Tasumal | Hoya de Serena

In the first half of the XIII century. the Inca empire emerges with the capital Cuzco. Between 1300 and 1400, meticulously planned large cities with wide streets, terraces, fortress walls decorated with relief pyramids were founded. The cities had sewerage systems and water supply devices.

The symbol of the power of the Inca empire was the city of Cuzco, one of the most beautiful cities in the world, on the territory of which there were hundreds of palaces and temples. The main square in the city was the Huacapata square (sacred terrace), from which the roads to the four main provinces of the country diverged. There were also palaces, one of which had an area of ​​30 by 160 meters. The wealth of the rulers of the Incas can be judged at least by the fact that when the old emperor of the Incas died, his body was embalmed and placed in the palace, which henceforth became a sanctuary. His successor had to build a new palace for himself. No other European ruler could afford such a luxury. But most of all, the temple complex of Cuzco Coricancha (golden courtyard) impressed with its magnificence. Its main building was the temple of the sun god Inti, in which there were a huge number of tons of gold alone. Golden windows, doors, walls, roofs, floors, ceilings, cult objects amazed people. The center of the temple was a multi-meter disc of pure gold, symbolizing the sun god. Near the temple was the courtyard of Intipampa (golden field), where there were trees, plants and herbs made of gold, deer, butterflies, shepherds, etc., and all this was done in full size and everything moved (!) With the help of the most skillful mechanisms. It was truly a miracle unparalleled in the world.

To the most important and the oldest monuments countries, belong to two pyramids at San Juan de Teotihuacan, in the Valley of Mexico, standing in a circle of less massive, but high pyramids. Other pyramids of a remarkable device are found in San Cristobal Teopantepec, in Santa Cruz del Quihe, at Jochicalco in Guatusco, at Cuernavaca and elsewhere.

All the architecture of Central America and Mexico has basically the beginning of a pyramid. This is noticeable mainly in religious monuments and, to a lesser extent, in temple and palace buildings. But the facades of other buildings also resemble somewhat the pyramidal shape, since the size of individual floors is gradually decreasing.

In the architecture of the Mexicans, the style they have mastered is strictly observed, although it does not indicate a high degree of development. All details and subdivisions are executed on the basis of the simplest laws. To decorate the walls, horizontal rows of meanders, caissons, etc. were used.In general, buildings built on flat terrain, or on terraces, or on top of hills, were represented by simple quadrangular masses with rectilinearly covered portals and with a simple installation of four pillars, on which lay the roof with rich decorations. With the lack of pillars, a variety of internal arrangements was impossible.

Central America is especially rich in antiquities and ruins of the cities of Honduras and Yucatan. In the first of these states, Comayagua, Harumela and Lahamina are remarkable, near which hewn stones and very beautifully painted vases were found; further Teampua with 250-300 different buildings, between which one is 95 m long and contains different pyramids, especially Copan, whose monuments and ornaments can compete with the Egyptian ones. Colossal statues of idols are often found on the ridges of mountains up to 700 m in height.

Up to twenty ruins of cities have already been discovered in Yucatan, striking in their magnificence and their vastness. Palaces often consist of various buildings lying one above the other, as, for example, in Tsai, Labna, Kabakh, Uxmal, etc .; colossal staircases lead from one terrace to another and are decorated on both sides with sculptural images of snakes, whose heads touch the ground, and a huge body soars upward.

While the newest monuments present an extraordinary abundance of ornamentation, the older ones are distinguished by simplicity, serious style and strength, such as, for example, the famous pyramidal temple in Palenque in Guatemala, the front side of which is decorated with various figures and inscriptions, while the inside walls are covered with sculptural works and bas-reliefs of mythological content.

Civilizations of ancient America

By the time the Spanish ships appeared off the east coast of the New World, this vast continent, including the West Indies, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and peoples at different levels of development.

Most of them were hunters, fishermen, gatherers or primitive farmers, only in two relatively small areas of the western hemisphere - in Mesoamerica and the Andes - the Spaniards met highly developed Indian civilizations. The highest cultural achievements of pre-Columbian America were born on their territory. By the time of its "discovery", in 1492 d, up to 2/3 of the total population of the continent lived there, although by their size these areas accounted for only 6.2% of its total area. It was here that the centers of origin of American agriculture were located, and at the turn of our era, the original civilizations of the ancestors of the Nahua, Maya, Zapotecs, Quechua, Aymara, etc.

In the scientific literature, this territory is called Middle America or the Zone of High Civilizations. It is subdivided into two regions - northern - Mesoamerica and southern - Andean region (Bolivia - Peru), with an intermediate zone between them (southern part of Central America, Colombia, Ecuador), where cultural although achievements have reached a significant degree, they have not risen to the heights of statehood and civilization. The arrival of the European conquerors interrupted any independent development of the aboriginal population of these areas. Only now, thanks to the work of several generations of archaeologists, are we finally beginning to understand how rich and vibrant the history of pre-Columbian America was.

The New World is also a unique historical laboratory, since the process of development of local culture took place on its own, on the whole, starting from the Late Paleolithic era (30-20 thousand years ago) - the time of the continent's settlement from Northeast Asia through the Bering Strait and Alaska - and up to until he was put to an end by the invasion of European conquerors. Thus, in the New World, almost all the main stages can be traced. ancient history of humanity: from primitive mammoth hunters to the builders of the first cities - the centers of early class states and civilizations. Already a simple comparison of the path traversed by the indigenous population of America in the pre-Columbian era with the milestones in the history of the Old World gives an unusually large amount for identifying general historical patterns.

The term "discovery of America" ​​by Columbus itself, which is often found in historical works of both Soviet and foreign authors, also requires some clarification.

It has been rightly pointed out more than once that this term is actually incorrect, since before Columbus the shores of the New World were reached from the east by the Romans, Vikings, etc., and from the west by the Polynesians, Chinese, Japanese, etc. culture was not one-sided. For Europe, the discovery of America had colossal political, economic, and intellectual implications.

The Indian civilizations of the New World managed to reach their apogee without the most important technical achievements of antiquity, which included the smelting of iron and steel, the breeding of domestic animals (especially draft animals and pack animals), wheeled transport, a potter's wheel, plow farming, an arch in architecture, etc. In the Andean region, the processing of non-ferrous metals, gold and silver was carried out as early as the II millennium BC. e., and by the time the Europeans arrived, the Incas widely used in their practice not only bronze weapons, but also bronze tools. However, in Mesoamerica, metals (except iron) appeared already at the end of the civilizations of the classical period (I millennium AD) and were used mainly for the manufacture of jewelry and religious objects.

The rapid progress of archaeological research in the most important centers of Central America, combined with the efforts of linguists, ethnographers, historians, anthropologists and others, now allows, albeit in the most general form, to trace the main stages of the development of ancient civilization in the New World, to identify its characteristic features and characteristics.

We will, of course, only talk about the most outstanding Indian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the Andean region.

A special cultural and geographical area - Mesoamerica (or Mesoamerica) - is the northern region of the zone of highly developed civilization of the New World and includes Central and Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize (formerly British Honduras), western regions of El Salvador and Honduras. In this area, characterized by a variety of natural conditions and a variegated ethnic composition, by the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. there was a transition from a primitive communal system to an early class state, which immediately promoted the local Indians to the number of the most developed peoples of ancient America. For over one and a half thousand years, which separates the emergence of civilization from the Spanish conquest, the borders of Mesoamerica have undergone significant changes. In general, the era of civilization within this cultural-geographical area can be divided into two periods: early, or classical (the turn of the century - IX century. BC).

In the 1st millennium AD e. the zone of high cultures of Mesoamerica did not include Western and Northwestern Mexico. The northern border of civilization then ran along the river. Lerma and coincided with the northern limits of the Teotihuacan culture. The southern borders of Mesoamerica were at the same time the southern border of the Mayan civilization, passing along the river. Ulua in Western Honduras and r. Lempa in West El Salvador. In the postclassical time, the western (Tarascan state) and part of the northern (Zacatecas, Casas Grandes) regions of Mexico are also included in Mesoamerica, thereby significantly expanding its overall territory.

"OLMEX PROBLEM"

The most significant Mesoamerican cultures of the classical period are the Teotihuacan (Central Mexico) and Mayan (southern Mexican regions, Belize, Guatemala, western El Salvador and Honduras). But first, a few words about the "first civilization" of Mesoamerica - the culture of the "Olmecs" on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico (Tabasco, Veracruz). The population of these areas at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. (800-400 BC) reached a high level of culture: at this time the first "ritual centers" appeared in La Venta, San Lorenzo and Tres Zapotes, pyramids of adoba (adobe) and clay were built, and carved stone monuments with themes of predominantly mythological and religious content.

Among the latter, there are giant anthropomorphic stone heads in helmets, the weight of which sometimes reaches 20 tons. The “Olmec” style of art is characterized by low-relief carving on basalt and jade. Its main motive was the figure of a crying plump child with the features of a jaguar attached to it. These "baby jaguars" adorned graceful jade amulets, massive gopors-Celts (the Olmecs had a cult of a stone ax as a symbol of fertility), and giant basalt steles. Another notable feature of the "Olmec" culture was the following ritual: in deep pits in the central squares of settlements, caches were arranged with offerings to the gods in the form of hewn blocks of jade and serpentine, Celtic axes and figurines made of the same materials, etc., with a total weight of tens of centners ... These materials were delivered to the "Olmec" centers from afar: for example, to La Venta - from a distance of 160 and even 500 km. Excavations in another “Olmec” village, San Lorenzo, also revealed giant heads and rows of ritually buried monumental sculptures in a purely “Olmec” style.

According to a series of radiocarbon dates, this refers to the years 1200-900. BC e. It was on the basis of the above data that the hypothesis was formulated that the "Olmecs" are the creators of the earliest civilization of Mesoamerica (1200-900 BC) and from it all other highly developed cultures of Mesoamerica - Zapotec, Teotihuacan, Maya and others. At the same time, today we have to say that the "Olmec" problem is still very far from being solved. We do not know about the ethnicity of the carriers of this culture (the term "Olmecs" is borrowed from the name of those ethnic groups who settled on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico on the eve of the Conquest). There is no clarity about the main stages in the development of the Olmec culture, the exact chronology and material characteristics of these stages. The general territory of the spread of this culture, its socio-political organization is also unknown.

In our opinion, the culture of the "Olmecs" with all its manifestations reflects a long path of development: from the end of the 2nd millennium BC to the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. until the middle - the last centuries of the 1st millennium BC e. It can be assumed that "ritual centers" with monumental sculpture appear in Veracruz and Tabasco approximately in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. (possibly even 800 BC), as in La Venta. But everything that is presented there archaeologically in 800-400 years. BC e., fully corresponds to the level of "chiefdoms", "alliances of tribes", ie, the final stage of the primitive era. It is significant that the first examples of writing and calendar known to us appear on the "Olmec" monuments only from the 1st century BC. BC e. (stele C in TresSapotes, etc.). On the other hand, the same "ritual centers" - with pyramids, monuments and calendar hieroglyphic inscriptions - are presented in Oaxaca from the 7th-6th centuries. BC BC, and without inscriptions - in mountainous Guatemala, among the ancestors of the Maya, at least from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Thus, the question of the “ancestor culture” that gave birth to all the others is no longer for Mesoamerica: apparently, there was a parallel development in several key areas at once - the Mexico City Valley, the Oaxaca Valley, mountainous Guatemala, the Mayan plains, etc.

TEOTIHUACAN

50 km northeast of Mexico City, where high mountain ranges part, forming a large and fertile valley (this is an offshoot of the Mexico City Valley), there are the ruins of Teotihuacan, in the past the capital of the most ancient civilization of Central Mexico, an important cultural, political and administrative , the economic and cult center not only of this region, but of the whole of Mesoamerica in the 1st millennium AD. e.

According to scientists, by 600 AD. BC - the moment of the highest prosperity - the total area of ​​the city was over 18 square meters. km, and the population is from 60 to 120 thousand people. The main ritual and administrative core of Teotihuacan, which was already formed by the 1st century. n. BC, was carefully planned around two wide streets intersecting at right angles and oriented to the cardinal points: from north to south, Road of the Dead avenue over 5 km long, and from west to east - an unnamed avenue up to 4 km long.

It is interesting that at the northern end of the Road of the Dead there is a giant massif of the Pyramid of the Moon (height 42 m), built of mud bricks and faced with rough volcanic stone. In design and appearance, it is an exact copy of its older sister, the Pyramid of the Sun, located on the left side of the avenue and representing a grandiose five-tier structure with a flat top, on which the temple once stood. The height of the colossus is 64.5 m, the length of the sides of the base is 211, 207, 217 and 209 m, the total volume is 993 thousand cubic meters. m. It is assumed that the construction of the pyramid required the labor of at least 20 thousand people for 20-30 years.

At the intersection with the transverse avenue, the Road of the Dead ends in a vast complex of buildings erected on one gigantic low platform and united under the common name "Ciutadela", which means "citadel" in Spanish. One of the main researchers of the city, R. Millon (USA), believes that this is the "tekpan" (Aztec palace) of the ruler of Teotihuacan. In this ensemble of graceful buildings, a temple stands out in honor of the god Quetzalcoatl - the Feathered Serpent, the patron saint of culture and knowledge, the god of air and wind, one of the main deities of the local pantheon. The building of the temple itself is completely destroyed, but its pyramidal base, consisting of six gradually decreasing stone platforms, placed on top of each other, has been perfectly preserved.

The facade of the pyramid and the balustrade of the main staircase are decorated with the sculptural heads of Quetzalcoatl himself and the god of water and rain Tlaloc in the form of a butterfly. At the same time, the teeth of the heads of the Feathered Serpent were painted with white paint, and the eyes of the butterflies had false pupils from obsidian disks.

To the west of Ciutadela is a vast complex of buildings (approximately 400 × 600 m), which archaeologists consider as the city's main market. Along Teotihuacan's main avenue, the Road of the Dead, are the ruins of dozens of lush temple and palace structures. By now, some of them have been excavated and reconstructed, so that anyone can get a general idea of ​​their architecture and painting. Such is, for example, the Palace of Quetzalpapalotl or the Palace of the Feathered Snail (part of the premises of the palace has stone square columns with low-relief images of the Feathered Snail). The palace is a vast complex of residential, public and storage facilities grouped around courtyards. The walls of buildings are made of adobe or stone, plastered and often either painted in some bright color, or (especially inside) have colorful fresco paintings. and Tepan-titla

They depict people (representatives of the elite and priests), gods and animals (eagles, jaguars, etc.) Anthropomorphic (apparently, portrait) masks made of stone and clay (in the latter case, with multicolored coloring) are also a peculiar feature of the local culture. VII centuries AD in Teotihuacan, the original style of ceramics (cylindrical vases with and without legs with fresco painting or carved ornaments and burnishing) and terracotta figurines

The architecture of the city is dominated by buildings on pyramidal foundations of various heights, while the design of the latter is characterized by a combination of vertical and inclined surfaces (the style of a vertical "panel and slope").

The above-described ritual and administrative center of Teotihu-akan was surrounded on all sides by residential quarters in the form of clusters of block houses (up to 60 m long), planned for the cardinal points along a regular network of narrow straight streets. Each block consisted of residential, utility and utility rooms, set up around rectangular courtyards and apparently served as a habitat for a group of related families. These are one-storey buildings with flat roofs, made of mud brick, stone and wood. They are usually concentrated in larger units - "quarters" (Spanish barrio), and those, in turn, in four large "districts". Teotihuacan was the largest craft and trade center in Mesoamerica. Archaeologists have found in the city up to 500 craft workshops (of which - 300 workshops for processing obsidian), quarters of foreign traders and "diplomats" from Oaxaca (Zapotec culture) and from the Mayan territory. Products of the same Teotihuacan masters are found in the 1st millennium AD. e. from Northern Mexico to Costa Rica. There is no doubt that the cultural, economic (and probably political) influence of the city during its greatest heyday extended to most of Mesoamerica.

And suddenly at the end of the 7th century. n. e. the huge city suddenly perishes, destroyed by the flames of a gigantic fire. The causes of this catastrophe are still unclear. However, it should be recalled that Teotihuacan was in the 1st millennium AD. e. the northern outpost of the zone of Mesoamerican civilizations. It bordered directly on the motley and restless world of the barbarian tribes of northern Mexico. Among them we find both sedentary farmers and roving tribes of hunters and gatherers. Teotihuacan, like ancient agricultural civilizations Central Asia, India and the Near East, constantly felt the pressure of these warlike tribes on their northern border. Under a certain set of circumstances, one of the enemy's campaigns into the interior of the country, apparently, ended with the capture and destruction of Teotihuacan itself. After this terrible defeat, the city never recovered, and new, more powerful forces came to the fore in Mesoamerican history - the city-states of Askapotsalco, Cholu-la, Sochikalko and later, from the 9th century. n. e., - the state of the Toltecs.

MAYAN CIVILIZATION OF THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (I-IX centuries A.D.)

The Maya, as if defying fate, settled for a long time in the inhospitable Central American jungle, building their white-stone cities there. Fifteen centuries before Columbus, they invented an accurate solar calendar and created the only developed hieroglyphic writing in America, used the concept of zero in mathematics, and confidently predicted solar and lunar eclipses. Already in the first centuries of our era, they achieved amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting.

But the Maya did not know metals, plows, wheeled carts, domestic animals, potter's wheel. In fact, based only on their set of tools, they were still Stone Age people. The origins of Mayan culture are shrouded in mystery. We only know that the emergence of the first "classical" Mayan civilization dates back to the turn of our era and is associated with the forest plains in southern Mexico and northern Guatemala. For many centuries, populous states and cities have existed here. But in the IX-X centuries. the heyday ended with a sudden and violent disaster.

The cities in the south of the country were abandoned, the population fell sharply, and soon tropical vegetation covered the monuments of former greatness with its green carpet. After the X century. the development of the Mayan culture, although already somewhat changed by the influence of the foreign conquerors, the Toltecs, who came from Central Mexico and from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, continued in the north - on the Yucatan Peninsula - and in the south - in the mountains of Guatemala. The Spaniards found there over two dozen small, constantly warring Indian states, each of which had its own dynasty of rulers. By the beginning of the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. The Maya Indians occupied a vast and varied natural area, including the modern Mexican states of Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo, as well as all of Guatemala, Belize, western regions of El Salvador and Honduras.

Mayan borders in the 1st millennium AD e., apparently, more or less coincided with those mentioned above. At present, most scientists distinguish three large cultural and geographical areas or zones within this territory: Northern (Yucatan Peninsula), Central (Northern Guatemala, Belize, Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico) and Southern (mountainous Guatemala).

The beginning of the classical period in the low-lying forest areas of the Maya was marked by the emergence of such new cultural features as hieroglyphic writing (inscriptions on reliefs, steles, lintels, ceramics and frescoes, small plastic items), calendar dates for the Maya era (the so-called Long Count-the number of years dating from the mythical date 3113 BC), monumental stone architecture with a stepped "false" vault, the cult of early steles and altars, the specific style of ceramics and terracotta figurines, original wall paintings.

Architecture in the central part of any major Mayan city in the 1st millennium AD e. represented by pyramidal hills and platforms of various sizes and heights. Inside, they are usually constructed from a mixture of earth and rubble, and faced on the outside with slabs of hewn stone, fastened with lime mortar. On their flat tops there are stone buildings: small buildings of one or three rooms on high tower-like pyramid-bases (the height of some of these pyramid-towers, such as, for example, in Tikal, reaches 60 m). These are probably temples. And the long multi-room ensembles on low platforms framing the inner open courtyards are most likely residences of the nobility or palaces, since the floors of these buildings are usually made in the form of a stepped vault, their walls are very massive, and the interiors are relatively narrow and small in size. Narrow doorways served as the only source of light in the rooms, so coolness and twilight reign inside the surviving temples and palaces. At the end of the classical period, the Maya developed ritual ball playgrounds - the third type of main monumental buildings in local cities. The main planning unit in Mayan cities was rectangular cobbled squares surrounded by monumental buildings. Very often, the most important ritual and administrative buildings were located on natural or artificially created elevations - "acropolis" (Piedras Negras, Copan, Tikal, etc.).

Ordinary dwellings were built of wood and clay under roofs of dry palm leaves and were probably similar to the Mayan huts of the 16th-20th centuries described by historians and ethnographers. In the classical period, as well as later, all residential buildings stood on low (1-1.5 m) platforms, faced with stone. A detached house is a rare phenomenon among the Maya. Typically, residential and utility rooms form groups of 2-5 buildings located around an open courtyard (patio) of a rectangular shape. This is the seat of a large patrilocal family. Residential “patio groups” tend to be combined into larger units, like a city “block” or part of it.

In the VI-IX centuries. Maya achieved the greatest success in the development of various types of non-applied art, and above all in monumental sculpture and painting. The sculptural schools of Palenque, Copan, Yaxchilan, Piedras-Negras achieve at this time a special subtlety of modeling, harmony of composition and naturalness in the transfer of the depicted characters (rulers, priests, dignitaries, warriors, servants and prisoners). The famous Bonampak frescoes (Chiapas, Mexico) dating back to the 8th century. n. e., represent a whole historical narrative: complex rituals and ceremonies, scenes of a raid on foreign villages, the sacrifice of prisoners, a festival, dances and processions of dignitaries and nobles.

Thanks to the works of American (T. Proskuryakov, D. Kelly, G. Berlin, J. Kubler, etc.) and Soviet (Yu.V. Knorozov, R.V. n. BC - steles, lintels, reliefs and panels (as well as hieroglyphic inscriptions on them) are memorial monuments in honor of the deeds of the Mayan rulers. They tell about the birth, accession to the throne, wars and conquests, dynastic marriages, ritual ceremonies and other important events in the life of the secular rulers of nearly two dozen city-states that existed, according to archeology, in the Central Maya region in the 1st millennium AD. e.

The purpose of some pyramidal temples in Mayan cities is now defined in a completely different way. If before they were considered the sanctuaries of the most important gods of the pantheon, and the pyramid itself was only a high and monolithic stone pedestal for the temple, then recently, under the foundations and in the thickness of a number of such pyramids, it was possible to find magnificent tombs of kings and members of ruling dynasties (the discovery of A. Rus in the Temple Inscriptions, Palenque, etc.).

Noticeable changes have undergone in recent years and ideas about the nature, structure and functions of the large Mayan "centers" of the 1st millennium AD. e. Extensive research by US archaeologists in Tikal, Tsibil-chaltun, Etzna, Seibal, Bekan, and others revealed the presence there of a significant and permanent population, handicraft production, imported products and many other features and signs inherent in the ancient city in both the Old and New Light.

A real sensation in Mayan studies was the discovery by the American researcher Michael Ko of polychrome painted ceramics from the most magnificent burials of Mayan aristocrats and rulers of the 1st millennium AD. e. Comparing the plots presented on these clay vases with the descriptions of the exploits of the twin heroes in the underworld from the Mayakichi epic Popol-Vuh (16th century), the scientist drew attention to their partial coincidence. This allowed Ko to assume that the images and inscriptions on each vessel describe the death of the Mayan ruler, the long journey of his soul through the terrible labyrinths of the kingdom of the dead, overcoming various obstacles and the subsequent resurrection of the ruler, who ultimately turned into one of the heavenly gods. All the twists and turns of this dangerous journey completely repeated the myth of the adventures of twin heroes in the underworld from the Popol Vuh epic. In addition, the American researcher found that the inscriptions or their individual parts, presented on almost all painted polychrome vases of the 6th-9th centuries. n. e., are often repeated, that is, they have a standard character. The reading of these "standard inscriptions" (the so-called formula of revival) has been successfully carried out in recent years by the Soviet scientist Yu. V. Knorozov. Thanks to this, a completely new, previously unknown world has now opened up before us - the mythological ideas of the ancient Maya, their concept of life and death, religious beliefs and much more.

CIVILIZATION OF THE AZTECS

After the death of Teotihuacan, Central Mexico for many decades becomes the arena of dramatic and turbulent events: more and more waves of militant barbarian tribes "Chichimecs" invade here from the north and north-west, sweeping away the still surviving islets of the Teotihuacan civilization in Ascapozalco, Porteule suelo, etc. Finally, at the end of the 9th-beginning of the 10th century. as a result of the merger of these two streams - the alien ("Chichimec") and local (Teotihuacan) - in the northeast of the region, a powerful state of the Toltecs emerges with its center in Tule-Tollan (Hidalgo, Mexico).

But this state formation turned out to be short-lived. In 1160, the invasion of new groups of barbarians from the north crushed Tollan and marked the beginning of another period of instability in the political history of Mesoamerica. Among the warlike newcomers were the tenochki-Aztecs (Asthecs), a semi-barbarian tribe, directed to search for a better life by the instructions of their tribal god Huitzilopochtli. According to legend, it was divine providence that predetermined the choice of the site for the construction of the future Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, in 1325: on the deserted islands in the western part of the vast Lake Texcoco. At this time, in the valley of Mexico City, several city-states were fighting for leadership, among which the more powerful Ascapotsalco and Culhuacan stood out. The Aztecs intervened in these intricacies of local politics, acting as mercenaries from the most powerful and successful masters.

In 1427, the Aztecs organized a "triple league" - an alliance of the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan (Takuba) - and set about the consistent conquest of adjacent regions. By the time the Spaniards arrived at the beginning of the 16th century. the so-called Aztec empire covered a huge territory - about 200 thousand square meters. km with a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico. The capital of the "empire" - Tenochtitlan - over time turned into a huge city, the area of ​​which was about 1200 hectares, and the number of inhabitants, according to various estimates, reached 120-300 thousand people.

This island city was connected to the mainland by three large stone dam roads, and there was a whole flotilla of canoe boats. Like Venice, Tenochtitlan was cut through by a regular network of canals and streets. The core of the city was formed by its ritual and administrative center: the "sacred site" - a 400 m long walled square, inside which were the main city temples ("Templo Major" - a temple with the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, the temple of Quetzal-Coatl, etc.), dwellings of priests, schools, playground for ritual ball games. Nearby were the ensembles of the magnificent palaces of the Aztec rulers - "Tlatoani". According to eyewitnesses, the palace of Montezuma (more precisely, Moctezuma) II had up to 300 rooms, had a large garden, a zoo, and baths.

Around the center were crowded residential quarters inhabited by merchants, artisans, farmers, officials, and soldiers. The huge Main Market and the smaller quarter bazaars traded in local and imported food and goods. The general impression of the magnificent Aztec capital is well conveyed by the words of an eyewitness and participant in the dramatic events of the conquest, the soldier Bernal Diaz del Castillo from the Cortez detachment. Standing on top of a high stepped pyramid, the conquistador looked in amazement at the strange and dynamic picture of the life of a huge pagan city: “And we saw a huge number of boats, some came with various loads, others ... with various goods ... All the houses of this great city ... were in the water , and from house to house you could only get through suspension bridges or boats. And we saw ... pagan temples and chapels, reminiscent of towers and fortresses, and they all sparkled with white and aroused admiration. "

Tenochtitlan was captured by Cortez after a three-month siege and a fierce struggle in 1521. And right on the ruins of the Aztec capital, from the stones of its palaces and temples, the Spaniards built a new city - Mexico City, the rapidly growing center of their colonial possessions in the New World. Over time, the remains of the Aztec buildings were covered with multi-meter strata of modern life. Under these conditions, it is almost impossible to conduct systematic and extensive archaeological research of Aztec antiquities. Only occasionally in the course of excavation in the center of Mexico City are stone sculptures, the creations of ancient masters, born. Therefore, the discoveries of the late 70s and 80s became a real sensation. XX century during the excavation of the Main Temple of the Aztecs - "Templo Mayor" - in the very center of Mexico City, on Zocalo Square, between the Cathedral and the Presidential Palace. Now the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli (the god of the sun and war, the head of the Aztec pantheon) and Tlaloc (the god of water and rain, the patron saint of agriculture) have already been opened, the remains of fresco paintings, stone sculpture have been discovered. Particularly noteworthy are a round stone with a diameter of over three meters with a low-relief image of the goddess Koyolshauhka, sister of Huitzilopochtli, 53 deep pit-holes filled with ritual offerings (stone figurines of gods, shells, corals, incense, ceramic vessels, necklaces, skulls of sacrificed people, etc.). ). The newly discovered materials (their total number exceeds several thousand) expanded the existing ideas about material culture, religion, trade, economic and political ties of the Aztecs during the heyday of their state in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

CIVILIZATION OF SOUTH AMERICA

What tribes and nationalities inhabited in ancient times Peru? The vast majority believe that they were the Incas. And it seems right. When in 1532 the Spanish conquistadors set foot on Peruvian land, the whole country, as well as Ecuador, Bolivia and Northern Chile, were part of the giant Inca Empire, or, as the Incas themselves called their state, Tahuantinsuyu. The total length of Tahuantinsuyu along the Pacific coast was over 4,300 km, and the population was at least 6 million. However, the Incas were only an external facade. ancient Peru, behind which, as in Egypt or Mesopotamia, a long and glorious past was hidden.

At the end of the II millennium BC. e. In the mountains of the northeastern regions of the country, the mysterious Chavin culture suddenly appeared, synchronous with the "Olmec" monuments of Mesoamerica and close to them in character (the cult of the feline predator - jaguar or cougar, stone pyramidal temples, elegant ceramics, etc.). Since the turn of our era, in the coastal zone of Peru, the Mochica civilization appears in the north, and the Nazca civilization in the south. Simultaneously with them, or a little later, the dynamic and original culture of Tiahuanaco was formed in the mountains of Bolivia and southern Peru (named after its central settlement, Tiahuanaco, near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca). What is characteristic of all the named early Peruvian-Bolivian civilizations?

First of all, they were born independently, at the same time or almost simultaneously with the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica, but without any noticeable ties with them. Further, although the ancient Peruvians did not create a hieroglyphic script or a complex calendar, their technology was generally better than that of the people of Mesoamerica. At a time when the Mesoamericans still lived entirely in the Stone Age, the Indians of Peru and Bolivia from the II millennium BC. e. knew metallurgy, processed gold, silver, copper and their alloys and made from them not only jewelry and weapons, but (as in the case of copper) even the tips of agricultural tools - "digging sticks" and hoes. They, especially the creators of the Mochica culture, made magnificent ceramics with polychrome painting and figured modeling. Their cotton and wool fabrics were delicate and perfect. But especially elegant types of these products - tapestries, decorative fabrics, brocade and muslin - have, perhaps, no equal in the ancient world. Their beauty was only enhanced by the brightness of dyes prepared from various plants (for example, indigo) and minerals. These three important components of the local culture - metal products, ceramics and fabrics (well preserved in the dry and warm climate of the coast) - give a unique originality to all the named ancient Peruvian civilizations of the 1st millennium AD. e.

The subsequent period (from the 10th century AD and later) was marked by an increase in the expansion of the population of mountainous regions (especially Tiahuanaco) into the Pacific coast zone. Then several new states arose here, the largest of which was Chimu, located in the north of this area, approximately from Timbeg to Lima. Its capital, Chan-Chan, occupied an area of ​​about 25 square meters. km and had a population of up to 25 thousand people. In the center of the city there were ten huge rectangles 400 × 200 m, enclosed by walls 12 m high - the palace ensembles of local kings. Around are smaller residences where officials, artisans and other groups of townspeople lived. After the death of the king, they were buried in his palace with all the riches, and the successor built himself a new building, which looked more like a castle or fortress than an ordinary house. It was in Chimu that an integrated network of irrigation canals was first created and roads were built connecting the mountains and the coast. This, in turn, explains both the impressive achievements of local culture and the significant concentration of the population in cities and villages.

At the same time, in the mountainous zone with its rugged relief, a large number of valleys and rivers almost isolated from each other, a number of small warring states arose at the same time. But only one of them - the Inca state in the Cuzco valley - possessing a more perfect organization of the army and the apparatus of power and distinguished by the belligerence of its inhabitants, managed to break the resistance of its neighbors and become the dominant force in the region. This happened just a century before the arrival of the Spaniards, in the 15th century. n. e.

The size of the Inca empire grew at an unprecedented rate. Between 1438 and 1460 Inca Pachacuti conquered most of the mountainous regions of Peru. Under his son Topa Inca (1471 -1493), a significant part of Ecuador and the territory of the state of Chimu were captured, and a little later - the south of the coastal Peruvian zone, the mountains of Bolivia, and the north of Chile. At the head of a huge power was the divine ruler of the Sapaina, who was helped by the hereditary aristocracy associated with the ruler by blood relationship, as well as the priestly caste and a whole army of officials who controlled all aspects of life.

Rural communities bore a heavy burden of all kinds of taxes and labor duties (work on the construction of roads, temples and palaces, in mines, military service, etc.). The population of the newly conquered lands was forcibly displaced from their native places to remote provinces. The empire was connected by an extensive network of stone-paved roads, along which post stations with rest rooms and warehouses with food and necessary materials stood at certain distances. On the roads, both foot messengers-runners and riders on llamas ply regularly.

Spiritual life and cult issues were entirely in the hands of the priestly hierarchy. The worship of the creator god Viracoche and the celestial planets was carried out in stone temples, decorated with gold inside. Depending on the circumstances, sacrifices to the gods ranged from the usual in such cases llama meat and maize beer to the murder of women and children (during the illness or death of the supreme Inca).

However, this largest and best-organized empire in pre-Columbian America was easy prey for a handful of Spanish adventurers led by Francisco Pizarro in the 16th century. n. e. The murder of the Inca Atahualpa in 1532 paralyzed the will to resist the local Indians, and the powerful Inca state collapsed in a matter of days under the blows of the European conquerors.

Fuerte de Samaipata (Samaipata Fortress), also known as El Fuerte, is an archaeological site and a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Bolivia in the Santa Cruz Department of Florida. It is located in the eastern foothills of the Bolivian Andes and is popular tourist spot for Bolivians and foreigners. The complex was not a military fortification and, according to historians, was a pre-Columbian religious site built by the Chane people, a large pre-Incan ethnic group comprising the Arawaks. There are also the ruins of the Inca city, built next to the complex during the expansion of the Incas to the southeast. The Incas and Chan were periodically raided by the Guaraní warriors who invaded the region from time to time. Eventually, the Guaraní conquered the plains and valleys of Santa Cruz and destroyed Samaipata. Guarani also dominated the region during Spanish colonization. Next to the temple complex, the Spaniards built a small settlement, in which the remains of buildings of typical Arab Andalusian architecture are now found. Over time, the Spaniards left the settlement and moved to the neighboring valley, where the city of Samaipata is now located.

Tiwanaku or Taipikala (sometimes Tiwanaku, Tiwanaku, Tiwanaku, from Aim.Tiwanaku) - ancient city, the spiritual and political center of the eponymous Andean civilization. Located 15 km from the southern shore of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. Since 2000 it has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The majority of the local population speaks Aymara (one of the three Indian languages ​​that vaguely resembles the Quechua language), the minority speaks Uru (Uru) or a similar Chipaya. Previously, the now extinct language of Pukin was widespread. Alan Kolata believed that all of these languages ​​were important in Tiwanaku. The name of the area in the Aymara language was consonant with Taipikala (Taipikala), which means "stone in the center", since the area was, in their opinion, near the center of the world. There is an opinion that before that there was a name in the Pukin language. It is believed that in pre-colonial Bolivia already in the II-IX centuries. Tiwanaku was the largest city in the Central Andes region and the center of the state of Pukina. At that time, the city occupied about 6 km² and had 40 thousand inhabitants. Around 1180, the city was abandoned by the inhabitants after the defeat of Pukin by the Stake (Aymara) tribes.

Chan-Chan is the former center of Chimu culture and the capital of the Chimor state formation. Located on the Pacific coast of northern Peru, west of Trujillo in the La Libertad region. The city was founded around 1300 and to this day covers an area of ​​about 28 km². It was probably the largest city of its time on the South American continent and one of the largest cities in the world built from adobe. During the period of its greatest prosperity, about 60 thousand people lived in it, and in the city, gold, silver and ceramics were stored in large quantities. The Chimu capital originally consisted of nine autonomous regions, each of which was ruled by a separate ruler who displayed valor in battle. These rulers were revered as kings. Each district had its own burial sites with rich investments of precious stones, ceramics and dozens of skeletons of young women.

The ghost town of Humberstone in the Atacama Desert originated in the Atacama Desert in 1872 as an industrial city. Local residents worked in the mines of James Thomas Humberstone for the extraction of saltpeter. The demand for nitrogen fertilizers was great, the city was getting richer. There were schools, theaters, restaurants, churches, and their own customs. But over time, the reserves of sodium nitrate were depleted. In 1958, the Humberstone plant was closed, and 3 thousand people were left unemployed. In a short time the city was deserted. Residents left in a hurry, leaving their property here. Now Humberstone is an open-air museum. It is visited by tourists, every November a festival is held in the city, which attracts people who once lived here. Since 2005, the city has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
For more than half a century, no one has lived in Humberstone. But many tourists come here. Guided tours are held here, and once a year there is a festival.

Ciudad Perdida, or Buritaka 200, is an archaeological site representing the ruins of the city of culture Tayrona in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. The city is believed to have been founded around 800 AD. e., that is, 650 years earlier than Machu Picchu. The area is also known as Buritaka, and the local Indians call it Teyuna. The city was accidentally discovered in 1972 by local grave robbers. They found a group of stone steps climbing up the mountain, and following this staircase, they found themselves in an abandoned city, which they called "green hell." After gold figurines and ceramic urns from the city began to appear in the local market, authorities investigated and discovered the city in 1975. According to representatives of local tribes - the Aruaco, Kogi and Arsario - they visited the city long before it was discovered by the authorities, but kept its whereabouts secret. They called the city Teyuna and believed that their ancestors, carriers of the Tayrona culture, lived here. Ciudad Perdida was, apparently, a regional political and industrial center on the Buritaka River, it could be home to from 2 to 8 thousand people. The city was apparently abandoned during the Spanish conquest.